Need for speed

Lets Talk enzyme.

To the meat of the matter.

There are ten enzymes in total that are used in Glycolysis.

There are 7 reversible reaction enzymes

and

There are 3 irreversible reaction enzyme

The 3 irreversible reaction enzymes are :-

1. Hexiokinase

is involved in the priming reaction that converts glucose to glucose-6-phosphate with the use of an ATP molecule.

2.  PFK-1  (6-Phosphofructo-1-kinase)

is involved in the second priming reaction that converts Fructose-6-phosphate to fructose-1,6- bisphosphate with the use of an ATP molecule.

3. Pyruvate Kinase 

is involved in substrate level phosphorolyation that converts PEP to pyruvate with the use of ADP to produce ATP.

Well as you may have assumed if there are 10 enzymes and three are irreversible reaction and 7 are not  then the remaining of the 10 are  *drum roll* reversible!

Reversible Enzyme  Reaction 

1. Phosophohexose Isomerase

is involved in an isomerization reaction that converts glucose-6-phosphate into fructose-6- phosphate.

2. Aldose 

is involved in the splitting reaction where fructose-1,6-bisphosphate is broken into glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate and dihydroxyacetone phosphate

3. Triose Phosphate isomerase 

is involved in an isomerization reaction that converts dihydroxyacetone phosphate into glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate

Therefore there re two molecules of glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate.

4. Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase

is involved in oxidation reaction of  glyceraldhyde-3-phosphate into 1,3-BPG with the use of an inoraginc phosphate moelcule and NAD+

5. Phosphoglycerate Kinase

is involved the conversion of 1,3-BPG into 3-phosphoglycerate with the use of an ADP molecule to form an ATP molecule.

6. Phosphoglycerate mutase

is involved in converting 3-phosphoglycerate to 2-phosphoglycerate

7. Enolase 

is involved in the condensation reaction where 2-phosphoglycerate is converted into PEP.

Thats all guys 🙂

 

Reference :

http://www.personal.kent.edu/~cearley/PChem/glycol/glycolysis.htm

Types of Inhibition

This has been a tricky area for me so I decided to blog about it.

The Lineweaver Burk plot !

There are four types of inhibition:-

1. Competitive

2. Uncompetitive

3. Non-Competitive

4. Mixed

Competitive Inhibition – the inhibitor binds directly to the active site

The substrate and inhibitor resemble

Uncompetitive Inhibition- binds to the enzyme substrate complex away from the active site

The substrate and inhibitor resemble

Non-Competitive Inhibition – the inhibitor binds to different sites on the enzyme away from the active site

Mixed Inhibition- the inhibitor binds at a separate site from the substrate active site It binds either at the free enzyme or enzyme substrate complex.

A summary that I found that helped me was a diagram of the types of inhibition in Lineweaver Burk plot

In Mixed Inhibition :  the Km may increase or decrease

the V max will always be reduced 

 

Reference :

http://guweb2.gonzaga.edu/faculty/cronk/CHEM440pub/L21-index.cfm

What is a Stroke ?

     I had the opportunity to witness a live autopsy in which the man being analysed had a stroke. His brain when looked at was not a solid whole form but rather like fruit punch, a liquid. So What is a stroke? 

A stroke is where there is an interruption of blood supply to the brain or when a blood vessel burst.  Brain cells require oxygen and nutrients from the brain to function. Therefore when a stroke occur brain cells die in that area due to lack of oxygen.

            There are two types of stroke

1. Ischemic – There is blockage of blood vessel supplying the brain.
2. Hemorrhagic – There is bleeding into or around the brain.

 

            The symptoms of a stroke include numbness or weakness especially on the side of the body, sudden confusion or trouble speaking or understanding speech, difficulty in vision, dizziness, loss of coordination and sever headaches. There are underlying risk factors such as hypertension, atrial fibrillation and diabetes. There are three treatments stages for stroke; prevention, therapy and immediately after stroke and post stroke rehabilitation.  Acute stroke therapies try to try to stop stroke while it is happening by quickly dissolving the blood clot which causes an ischemic stroke or by stopping the bleeding of hemorrhagic. Post stroke rehabilitation assist in the overcoming of disabilities in individuals that result from stroke damage. Medication usual antithrombotics and thrombolytics which are anticoagulant and antiplatelet agents are usually the drug therapies used. Anticoagulant is a substance that prevents clotting of blood. Antiplatelet agent decreases the platelet aggregation and inhibits thrombus formations.

             Stroke occurs in the brain but may affect the entire body. A common disability that results is hemiplegia, this is paralysis of one side of the body.  Another common disability is hemiparesis this is one side weakness, it is not as debilitating as hemiplegia but still problematic. Strokes may cause problems in thinking awareness learning, judgement and memory. Many if them have numbness or strange sensations. Recurrence of stroke is frequent. Statistically twenty-five percent of people who recover from their first stroke will have another within five years.

Reference

 

National Institue of Neurological Disorder and Stroke, National Institutes of Health. “NINDS Stroke Information Page.” Bethesda, Maryland, March 20, 2013.

Cells Quiz

The Fun stuff again Guys.

There are a few tricks (few meaning one or two, no more)

 

Use the following key to answer the questions below:

A. 1, 3 and 4 are correct

B. 1 and 2 are correct

C. 3 and 4 are correct

D. 2 and 4 is correct

E. all are correct

 

1. The smallest cell must be cabable of performing life functions:-

1. Growth
2. Reproduction
3. Metabolism
4. Stimulus Response

2.  All are prokaryote structures except:-

 

1. cytoplasm
2. cell membrane
3. lysosome
4. centrioles

3.  All the following are found in Plant cells but not animal cells:-

 

1. DNA
2. ribosomes
3. cell wall
4. chloroplast

 

4. Which of the following organelles contain DNA:-

 

1. Chloroplast
2. Vacuoles
3. Mitochondrion
4. Nucleus

 

 

5. Cytoskeleton contains:-

 

1. Microtubules
2. cristae
3. microfilaments
4. intermediate filaments

 

6. Perioxisome :-

 

1. degrades amino acids
2. degrades  fatty acids
3. catalyse the break down of hydrogen peroxide
4. synthesised on free polyribosomes

 

7. The Nucleolus:-

1. used in transporation
2. provides structure support to the cell
3. manufactures ribosomal  DNA
4. densely pigmented

 

8. Characteristics of eukaryote and prokaryote cells are:-

 

1. prokaryotes contain 70s ribosomes while eukaryotes contain 80 s
2. eukaryotes are up to 40 mm
3. All eukaryotes contain cell walls
4. prokaryotes contain linear DNA while eukaryotes contain circular DNA.

 

9. The following is true about cell size:-

 

1. as cell size decreases  the ratio of surface area to volume decreases
2. as cell size increase the ratio of surface area to volume decreases
3. as cell size increases the volume decreases
4. as cell size increases the volume increases

 

10. The mitochondrion:-

 

1. double membrane
2. has cristae
3. contains DNA
4. manufactures ATP

Wasn’t that difficult right? 🙂

Let’s play : Guess What I am…

Instructions; I give you guys a clue and you must guess what its. It’s only about Amino Acids & Proteins so it shouldn’t be that difficult.

 

1. I am a ring like girl’s best friend diamonds but I am also the weakest link.  What am I?

 

3. They say I’m not wanted, because of my size I prevent things. What do I do?

 

4. I am pleated, If my C’s and N’s line up I am?

 

5. I’m general but I have it all, an amino acid, carboxylic acid, hydrogen and my R groups defines who I am. What Am I?

 

6. I have a quality of attracting negative, I am ………..

(This may have two answers)

 

Hope you had fun 🙂

See you soon.

 

Lets get Kinky.

I thought this was Interesting since the R groups should not be too bulky or too small since they both will destabilize the structure.

PROLINE

Nitrogen atom part of rigid ring and rotation about The nitrogen and alpha carbon bond is not possible.

Proline residue introduces a destabilizing link in helix due to the lack of hydrogen on nitrogen atom It is unable to form the correct pattern.

Therefore it is found at the end of the alpha helix many times since it alters the direction of the polypeptide chain and teminates the helix.

GLYCINE

The R group for glycine is  a hydrogen molecule.

Due to the R group being the smallest there is Conformational Flexibility.

Conformational flexibility also distorts the helical structure and thus destabilizes it.

Anxiety on Autism Spectrum Disorder.

         I chose to do Autism as my published paper since I am in very close contact with two autistic boys. I am intrigued by Autism. Because of the interactions I have with these young children I am thinking about perusing research in autism  and its neurological aspects. 

         Autism is said to be a spectrum disorder it is linked to a range of conditions sometimes including singular symptoms and traits. They are usually mental disorders and have a range of severity. The autonomic nervous system (ANS) also referred to as the control system is located in the Medulla Oblongata. It is under investigation in the area of anxiety since it operates below the level of consciousness. The ANS is linked to the rate, digestion, respiratory rate, salivation, perspiration, dilation, urination and sexual arousal. Many of these are involuntary and some of which work along side voluntary or consciousness.

           Due to the symptom overlap between conditions of anxiety and autism spectrum disorder (ASD) there are many challenges.  In the investigation of definite changes or responses of ASD individual to anxiety; the three physiological indicators were; heart rate, skin temperature and the electric charges in the skin surface when receiving brain signal (Electrodermal activity). These were under observation in movie watched and induced anxious conditions in seventeen typical children and twelve ANS children. Both groups responded in heart rate and electrodermal changes. In ANS group they had a much more elevated heart rate as well as electrodermal activity in both movie watched and induced anxious. However their skin temperature the typical decrease was not observed. This presented suggestions firstly; that signals of ASN may be used as an indicator of anxiety in children of ASD. The second suggestion is that ASD has relation to unusual autonomic response to anxiety hat is most consistent with sympathetic over-arousal and parasympathetic under-arousal.

Reference

A. Kushki, E. Drumme, M. Pal Mobarak, N. Tanel, A Dupuis, and E. Anagnostou. Investigating the Autonomic Nervous System Response to anxiety in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders. Holland Bloorview Kids Rehabilitation Hospital, Bloorview Research Institue , Toronto, Ontario, Canada: PubMed, 2013. April 5.

It is all about your structure.

Intro to Amino….

Hey ppl. Getting serious now,narrowing to final exam.

 Buckle up. Lets just get straight into the meat of the matter. 

Here goes…. 😀 

 

There are four levels of structure in amino acids

Alpha Helix 

Characteristics:-

Amino Acid arranged in helical configuration.

The oxygen of each peptide bond is hydrogen bonded to the hydrogen of the amino group of fourth amino acid away.

Hydrogen bonds parallel to the axis of the helix.

3.6 amino acid per turn of the helix turn equilivant to 0.54nm (nanometers).

Each amino acid represents an advance 0.15nm along the axis. 

The side chain are perpendicular to the cylindrical helix.

Only hydrogen bonds formed between peptid bonds.

Beta Pleated Sheet 

Characteristics:-

Hydrogen bonds form between peptide bonds either in different polypeptide chain or different section of polypeptide chain. 

The planarity of peptide bond forces polypeptide to be pleated with side chains of amino acid protruding both above and below. 

There are two types Parallel and Anti- Parallel

Parallel –  C terminal ends line up N terminal ends

 

Anti- Parallel – C terminal ends alternate to N terminal ends

Comparing Anti Parallel and Parallel -β- Pleated Sheet

In amino Acids there are Destabilizing and Stabilizing Factors.

Some Destabilizing Factors of Amino acids are:

1. Long stands of positive or negative charges will repel each other and prevent the formation of the helix.
2. Bulky side chains next to each other lead to STERIC HINDRANCE; this interferes and stops the formation of the helical structure.

 

Some Stabilizing Factors of Amino acids are:

1. Twist in helix ensures critical interactions between amino acid side chains this is a stabilizing factor since ion pairs are permitted to be formed.
2. The fourth amino acid at the end of the helix does not truly hydrogen bond these negatively charged residues are found near end and interact with the positive charged formed through out the helix when peptide bonds are connected by hydrogen bonds, this stabilizes the structure

 

Stay tuned. 🙂

Carbs Quiz

1. When glucose concentration is low, what molecule(s) is released by the pancrease to assist in returning glucose levels to normal?

A. glycogen

B. glucagon

C. glycogenesis

D. glyceraldehyde

E. glycerate

2. Sucrose is a non-reducing sugar because:

A. the presence of a asymmetrical carbon

B. lack of the carboxylic group

C. lack of a anomeric carbon for bonding

D. lack of a chiral carbon for bonding

E. presence of fructose molecule

3. Maltose bonds via;

A. α- 1,5-glycosidic bond

B. α-1-2-glycosidic bond

C. α-1,6- glycosidic bond

D. α- 1,4-glycosidic bond

E. α-1,3-glycosidic bond

4. In starch, there is an amylopectin branch every:

A. 3.6 residues

B. 12 residues

C. 24 residues

D. 10 residues

E. 28 residues

5. Glycogen branches every:

A. 10 residues

B. 12 residues

C. 24 residues

D. 3.6 residues

E. 28 residues

6. The general formula of carbohydrates is:

A. (CH₂O)_n

B. (C₂H₂O)_n

C. (CH₂O₂)_n

D. (CHO)_n

E. (C₂H₂O₂)_n

7. Definition of an epimer is:

A. four different groups attached

B. same number of atoms

C. different structural formula

D. different configuration around one carbon atom

E. the number of sterioisomeric centers

8. Lactose consists of:

A. Glucose  +  Fructose

B. Galactose + Fructose

C. Galactose + Glucose

D. Glucose + Maltose

E. Glycerate + Glucose

9. The scientific name for lactose (milk sugar) is:

A. β –D-galactopryanosyl-(1,2)-α -D -glucopyranose

B. α–L-galactopryanosyl-(1,4)-α  -L- glucopyranose

C. β –D-galactopryanosyl-(1,4)-α  -D- glucopyranose

D. β–D-galactopryanosyl-(1,4)-β -D glucopyranose

E. α–L-galactopryanosyl-(1,2)-α  -L- glucopyranose

10. Chiral Compound:

A. different configuration around one carbon atom

B. contains four similar bonds around one atom

C. same number of atoms

D. has four different groups attached to one atom

E. has three different groups attached to one atom